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Terms in this set [116]
Cognition literally means
knowing
Cognitive psychology focuses on the way humans process information, looking at how we treat information that comes in to the person [what behaviorists would call stimuli], and how this treatment leads to responses. In other words, they are interested in the
variables that mediate between stimulus/input and response/output
Cognitive psychologists study internal processes including:
perception
attention
language
memory
thinking
Cognitive psychology became of great importance in the mid 1950s. Several factors were important in this:
dissatisfaction with the behaviorist approach in its simple emphasis on external behavior rather than internal processes
the development of better experimental methods
comparison between human and computer processing of information
The cognitive approach began to revolutionize psychology in the late ___ and early ___, to become the dominant approach [i.e. perspective] in psychology by the late ____.
1950's
1960's
1970's
The cognitive revolution
-took place at Harvard
-the start of the modern scientific study of the mind
-result: cognitive science
Information processing approach assumptions
1. information made available by the environment is processed by a series of processing systems [e.g. attention, perception, short-term memory]
2. these processing systems transform or alter the information in systematic ways
3. the aim of research is to specify the processes and structures that underlie cognitive performance
4. information processing in humans resembles that in computers
Computer-mind analogy
-the computer gave cognitive psychologists an analogy to which they could compare human mental processing.
Essentially, a computer codes [i.e. changes] information, stores information, uses information, and produces an output [retrieves info]. The idea of information processing was adopted by cognitive psychologists as a model of how human thought works.
computer-mind analogy visual information example
For example, the eye receives visual information and codes information into electric neural activity which is fed back to the brain where it is "stored" and "coded". This information is can be used by other parts of the brain relating to mental activities such as memory, perception and attention. The output [i.e. behavior] might be, for example, to read what you can see on a printed page
The information processing approach characterizes thinking as the
environment providing input of data, which is then transformed by our senses. The information can be stored, retrieved and transformed using 'mental programs' with the results being behavioral responses
Information processing and attention
When we are selectively attending to one activity, we tend to ignore other stimulation, although our attention can be distracted by something else, like the telephone ringing or someone using our name
selective attention
what makes us attend to one thing rather than another
attentional capacity
how many things we can attend to at the same time
Broadbent and others in the 1950's adopted a model of the brain as a
limited capacity information processing system, through which external input is transmitted.
Information processing system
Information processing models consist of a series of stages, or boxes, which represent stages of processing. Arrows indicate the flow of information from one stage to the next.
Information processing system: input
processes are concerned with the analysis of the stimuli
Information processing system: storage
processes cover everything that happens to stimuli internally in the brain and can include coding and manipulation of the stimuli
Information processing system: output
processes are responsible for preparing an appropriate response to a stimulus
Serial processing effectively means
one process has to be completed before the next starts.
Parallel processing assumes
some or all processes involved in a cognitive task[s] occur at the same time.
Evidence from dual-task experiments with regard to parallel processing
There is evidence from dual-task experiments that parallel processing is possible.
It is difficult to determine whether a particular task is processed in a serial or parallel fashion as it probably depends
[a] on the processes required to solve a task, and
[b] the amount of practice on a task.
Parallel processing is probably more frequent when someone is highly skilled; for example a skilled typist thinks several letters ahead, a novice focuses on just 1 letter at a time.
The analogy between human cognition and computer functioning adopted by the information processing approach is limited. Computers can be regarded as information processing systems insofar as they:
combine information presented with stored information to provide solutions to a variety of problems and
most computers have a central processor of limited capacity and it is usually assumed that capacity limitations affect the human attentional system
Differences between humans and computers in regard to information processing systems
the human brain has the capacity for extensive parallel processing and computers often rely on serial processing
humans are influenced in their cognitions by a number of conflicting emotional and motivational factors
The evidence for the theories/models of attention which come under the information processing approach is largely based on experiments under controlled, scientific conditions. Most laboratory studies are artificial and could be said to lack
ecological validity
Wundt wanted to study the structure of the human mind [using ____].Wundt believed in reductionism. That is he believed:
introspection
consciousness could be broken down [or reduced] to its basic elements without sacrificing any of the properties of the whole.
Wundt argued that conscious mental states could be scientifically studied using _____.
introspection
The term "nomothetic" comes from the Greek word "nomos" meaning "law". Psychologists who adopt this approach are mainly concerned with studying
what we share with others. That is to say in establishing laws or generalizations.
The term "idiographic" comes from the Greek word "idios" meaning "own" or "private". Psychologists interested in this aspect of experience want to discover what
makes each of us unique.
Piaget [1952] defined a schema as
a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning
In more simple terms Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent behavior - a way of organizing knowledge. Indeed, it is useful to think of schemas as "units" of knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects, actions and abstract [i.e. theoretical] concepts.
Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of:
mental processes
how people learn, structure, store and use knowledge
"Knowledge": broadly defined here as
information about the world
Cognitive psychology relies on the
scientific method
a combination of logical deduction and empirical hypothesis testing
Cognitive psychology is a major domain within the larger field of:
cognitive science
Cognitive science
philosophical and empirical study of mind
includes:
philosophy
linguistics
anthropology
neuroscience
computer sciences
psychology
Traditionally, three things we can observe to observe the 'mind'
ourselves [thoughts and sensory info]
stimulus-response relationships
physiology [e.g. the brain]
Perspectives developed to deal with observing the mind
introspection
behaviorism
cognitivism
neuroscience/cognitive neuroscience
cognitivism
A theoretical approach that assumes the mind works like a computer. In other words, an approach to understanding the mind which argues that mental function can be understood as the "internal" manipulation of symbols.
introspection
A method of self-observation in which participants report their thoughts and feelings
behaviorism
A theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior
neuroscience
A relatively new interdisciplinary field devoted to understanding how the brain creates thoughts, feelings, motives, consciousness, memories, and other mental processes.
cognitive neuroscience
The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition [including perception, thinking, memory, and language].
B F Skinner cognitive approach criticism
believes that only external stimulus - response behavior should be studied as this can be scientifically measured. Therefore, mediation processes [between stimulus and response] do not exist as they cannot be seen and measured. Skinner continues to find problems with cognitive research methods, namely introspection [as used by Wilhelm Wundt] due to its subjective and unscientific nature.
Carl Rogers criticism of cognitive psychology
believes that the use of laboratory experiments by cognitive psychology have low ecological validity and create an artificial environment due to the control over variables. Rogers emphasizes a more holistic approach to understanding behavior.
Behaviorism assumes that people are born a
blank slate [tabula rasa] and are not born with cognitive functions like schemas, memory or perception
The early history of psychology was dominated by two major schools of thought:
structuralism
functionalism
Structuralism
An early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind.
The mind is composed of elemental units of experience
Structuralism was based on the method of introspection pioneered by __ and developed by ___
Wundt
Titchener
Problems with introspection
unreliable
private,
not public, events
end product, not the process
different observers too often give different introspective reports in the experimental conditions arranged by the researchers
cognition does not necessarily register in consciousness
________arose as an alternative school of thought to structuralism
Functionalism
Functionalism
A system of thought in psychology that was concerned with studying how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments.
___, ____ and other functionalists studied the mental processes that mediated between the environment and the organism. Functionalism addressed _____, rather than its ____
what the mind is for
structural components
Today's cognitive psychologists are concerned with both:
structural architecture of the mind
mental operations that mediate between stimuli and responses
Talk about stimuli and responses, ignore the rest
is a ____ perspective
behaviorist
John B Watson
American psychologist who founded behaviorism, emphasizing the study of observable behavior and rejecting the study of mental processes
1913 - "Psychology as the behaviorist views it"
Thought was 'subvocal speech'
which school of thought
behaviorism
Behaviorism is different from most other approaches because they view people [and animals] as
controlled by their environment and specifically that we are the result of what we have learned from our environment.
Behaviorism is concerned with how environmental factors [called ___] affect observable behavior [called the ___].
stimuli
response
The behaviorist approach proposes two main processes whereby people learn from their environment: namely
classical conditioning
operant conditioning
involves learning by association
classical conditioning
involves learning from consequences of behavior
operant conditioning
Behaviorism believes in scientific methodology [e.g. controlled experiments], and that only
observable behavior should be studies because this can be objectively measured.
Behaviorism rejects the idea that people have ___ and believes that the ___ determines all behavior
free will
environment
Behaviorism is the scientific study of observable behavior working on the basis that behavior can be reduced to
learned S-R [stimulus-response] units
Classical conditioning
studied by the Ivan Pavlov.
Though looking into natural reflexes and neutral stimuli he managed to condition dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell through repeated associated of the sound of the bell and food. The principles of CC have been applied in many therapies. These include systematic desensitization for phobias [step-by-step exposed to feared stimulus at once] and aversion therapy.
operant conditioning
B.F. Skinner investigated operant conditioning of voluntary and involuntary behavior. Skinner felt that some behavior could be explained by the person's motive. Therefore behavior occurs for a reason, and the three main behavior shaping techniques are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment.
Classical conditioning
take stimulus that proves a reflexive response
repeatedly pair it with a neutral stimulus
eventually,
neutral stimulus will provoke same response.
Classical conditioning
When sight of food is paired with ringing bell, dogs will eventually begin to salivate in response to bell
unconditioned response [US] =
conditioned stimulus [CS]=
unconditioned response [UR]=
conditioned response [CR]=
- Unconditioned stimulus [US] = sight of food
- Conditioned stimulus [CS] = ringing bell
- Unconditioned response [UR] = salivating at food
- Conditioned response [CR] = salivating at bell [even without food]
Frequency of given behavior increases in
response to reward/reinforcement, decreases in
response to punishment
operant conditioning
BF Skinner
Operant conditioning
reward stimulus
provide:
remove:
provide positive reinforcement
remove negative punishment
operant conditioning
aversive stimulus
provide
remove
provide positive punishment
remove
negative reinforcement
behaviorism
emphasis on directly observable phenomena, including:
stimuli
responses
reinforcement/rewards
rats in maxes, pigeons in "Sinner boxes"
Behaviorism eliminated the discussion of
consciousness and introspective reports on the contents of consciousness and reduced the scope of the field to the study of observable behavior
Behaviorism
inferences about the cognitive operations that intervened between the stimulus and the response were regarded as:
unscientific
Skinner's operant conditioning began with Thorndyke's ____ whereby
law of effect
a behavior followed by a reward increases in frequency
In operant conditioning, a response comes under the control of a ____. The response increases in frequency as a result of ____ and decreases in frequency as a result of ____
stimulus
reinforcement
punishment
For Skinner, the history of reinforcement and punishment determined
one's present behavior
and this was equally true of
human beings as of laboratory rats
Mind as a vending machine
perspective?
behaviorist
Edward Chance Tolman
one of the early cognitive psychologists [though called himself a behaviorist]; used behavior to infer mental processes; rats in a maze to demonstrate the cognitive map
cognitive map
A mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
Cognitive mapping is believed to largely be a function of the ______. The ______is connected to the rest of the brain in such a way that it is ideal for:
hippocampus
hippocampus
integrating both spatial and
nonspatial information
Tolman rats and mazes experient
a rat was placed in a cross shaped maze and allowed to explore it. After this initial exploration, the rat was placed at one arm of the cross and food was placed at the next arm to the immediate right. The rat was conditioned to this layout and learned to turn right at the intersection in order to get to the food. When placed at different arms of the cross maze however, the rat still went in the correct direction to obtain the food because of the initial cognitive map it had created of the maze. Rather than just deciding to turn right at the intersection no matter what, the rat was able to determine the correct way to the food no matter where in the maze it was placed
Found that rats that learned to run through a
maze could also quickly swim through it
• "Cognitive maps" - an internal representation -
very un-behaviorist!
Problems with behaviorist approach
Behavior in response to same stimulus is too
diverse
- e.g., need internal mental representations to account for language interpretation/use
• Direct observability is not necessary for topic
of study to be'scientific'
- electrons, genes; properties are inferred
infer what is going on inside the
box
perspective
cognitive
Cognitive approach
guiding assumptions
Individual processes can be studied in isolation
• Focus is on the individual and his/her natural
environment [as opposed to social]
• Cognitive processes are assumed to be
somewhat independent of non-cognitive capacities [e.g., emotions]
• It is useful [and meaningful] to distinguish
between 'normal' and 'abnormal' cognition
• 'typical'cognitive processes generalize
across individuals
• questions typically formulated terms of
information processing
• justification on empirical grounds
• constrained and complemented by findings of
neuroscience
The information processing approach
acts as a
metatheory that influences the way cognitive psychologists think about the mind
metatheory
Theory about theory; the stated or inherent assumptions made when creating a theory
Computational view of the mind
brain is ___
mind is ___
hardware
software
Computational view of the mind
cognitive psychologists try to figure out the
___
program
try to understand what happens to information in the mind
coding, storage, retrieval, input, output, capacity
computational view of the mind
the mind has ways of storing information
hard drive
mental representations
computational view of the mind
the mind has ways of manipulating inforation
RAM
mental processes
Broadbent
proposed one of the first models based on an information-processing analysis [a filter model to account for performance on selective listening tasks]. discovered this when asking subjects to listen to two different messages and the subject can only attune to one because of filter
physical symbol hypothesis
The physical symbol system hypothesis [PSSH] is a position in the philosophy of artificial intelligence formulated by Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon. In their own words, "a system is capable of inputting, outputting, storing, and modifying symbol structures, and carrying out some of these actions in response to the symbols themselves."
Information is a
reduction of uncertainty
___, not information in the mathematical sense, is the focus of human mental life
meaning
Problems for cognitive science
perception
consciousness
learning
intelligence
thinking
language
knowledge representation
memory
Core concepts of cognitive psychology
mental representation
stages of processing
serial versus parallel processing
hierarchical systems
cognitive architecture
memory stores
consciousness
emotion
Mental representation
An unobservable internal code for information.
Mental images are one kind of mental
representation.
Other kinds are unconscious and abstract.
Provide
the basis for all cognitive abilities and
knowledge about the world.
Stages of processing
Processes modify mental representations
in a series of stages.
Encoding, storage, and retrieval are
stages of processing in memory, for
example
Serial versus parallel processing
At a given stage of processing, cognitive
operations may be either serial or parallel.
Simultaneous operations are parallel not Simultaneous operations are parallel not
serial.
hierarchical systems
Mind as a hierarchy of component parts
analogous to bodily systems.
Nervous system divides into peripheral and
central branch. Peripheral divides into
autonomic and sensory, etc.
Mind divides into perception, memory, and
motor
output. Memory divides into sensory,
short-term, and long-term. Long-term divides
into declarative and nondeclarative.
Measuring information processing
reaction time [RT]
- the time elapsed between some stimulus,
and a person's response to that stimulus
- typical measured in milliseconds [ms]
accuracy
e.g. recognition or recall accuracy in memory studies
Experimental Method
Most common source of data in cognitive psychology is controlled laboratory experiments
1] manipulate independent variables [IV]; i.e.,
manipulate stimuli people experience
2] control other variables
3] sample from population
4] measure dependent variables [DV]; i.e.,
measure people's responses [e.g., accuracy, RT]
5] make inferences about what causes IV to
affect DV
cognitive architecture
the design or organization of the mind's information processing components and systems
The distinction between a working memory system and a long-term memory system is an
architectural distinction
A module is a
set of process that are automatic, fast, and encapsulated apart from other cognitive systems
Symbolic cognitive architectures
symbolic models
design of digital computer
symbolic representations
local representations
serial processing
connectionist cognitive architetures
connectionist models
structure of brain
associations among
simple units
distributed representations
parallel processing
Consciousness
Self-knowledge—knowledge of self in
addition to knowledge of objects, events,
and ideas external to self.
Informational access—capacity to be
Informational access—capacity to be
become aware of and able to report on
mental representations and processes.
Sentience—capacity for raw sensations,
feelings,
and subjective experience.
Emotion
The relation of emotion and cognition is now a
thriving area of research in cognitive psychology
and cognitive neuroscience.
It's still unclear if fear, anger, sadness, and so
on are basic categories with specific brain
circuits. There may be more basic dimensions of
valence [pleasure vs. pain] and arousal [high vs.
low].
Cognitive methods of research
Behavioral [e.g., response times, verbal reports]
and physiological [e.g., EEG, ERP,
neuroimaging, and brain lesions] methods of
research attempt to describe mental functions
and relate them to brain structures.
What happened that caused the 'cognitive revolution"
American psychologists rejected behaviorism and adopted a model of mind based on the computer
From the 1920s through the 1950s, American psychology was dominated by
behaviorism
Hermann Ebbinghaus
The history of modern memory research can be said to begin in 1885 with Ebbinghaus
used meaningless strings of letters to study the capacity of our memory system
Tichener
belonged to school of structuralism
used introspection and asked subjects to report on their current conscious experiences
work spawned three other systems of thought in reaction to structuralism: functionalism, behaviorism and Gestalt psychology
a Wundt-trained psychologist
Noam Chomsky
linguist
paved
the way for modern cognitive psychology with a critique of Skinner's book verbal behavior
opposed the behaviorist's position that speech is best explained by operant conditioning, that language is acquired by reinforcement. Argued that since children say things that they could not have heard adults say and that since even adults use language in novel and creative ways, speech could not possibly be due to reinforcement.
believed that language study is the most viable route to understanding the mind.
Three general research methods used in the study of human cognition:
measurement of the time elapsed between a stimulus presentation and the subject's response to it; reaction time
-provides insight into the organization of cognitive processes
-sometimes called mental chronometry
measurements focused on eye movements have been used to study reading and language
comprehension.
-eye movements are an 'online' measure; they can be measured as the subject is actually performing tasks
brain imaging
-association of cognitive processes to various parts of the brain
McClelland and Rumelhart
Accounts of human information processing used to assume that the brain processed information serially
McClelland and Rumelhart publisehd book about parallel distributed processes [PDP] proposing that information processing is distributed across the brain and is done in a parallel fashion.
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