DATA COLLECTION:
Self-Reports, Observation, & Biophysiologic Methods
Developing a data collection plan |
Identify types of data needed for the study |
Select the types of measures to measure each variable |
Select and/or develop instruments |
Secure written permission to use each instrument |
Pilot test researcher-developed instrument & revise prn |
Develop data collection forms and procedures |
Implement data collection plan |
Identify types of data needed for the study | ||
Testing hypothesis or answering research questions - measure each IV & DV | ||
Describe characteristics of sample | ||
Demographics - age, gender, ethnic origin, education background, marital status | ||
Health-related variables - health habits, diet, exercise, illness, length of illness, tx., los | ||
Control for extraneous variables | ||
Measure as many as possible | ||
Intrinsic and extrinsic factors [variables] that might influence DV | ||
Analysis of covariance | ||
Analyze potential biases | ||
Selection bias r/t sample | ||
Self-report of socially unpopular values, beliefs, or activities | ||
Marlowe-Crown Social Desirability scale use | ||
Understanding subgroup effects | ||
May want to see if main effects also apply to subgroups | ||
Main group - transplantation patients | ||
Subgroups -bone marrow, heart, kidney, lung, liver transplantation subgroups | ||
Analyze data per subgroup | ||
Interpretation of results | ||
Consider results that do not fit desired outcomes | ||
Identify what data might explain undesirable outcomes | ||
Manipulation check | ||
Ask subjects if manipulation/treatment was effective | ||
Helps to interpret negative results | ||
Obtain administrative data | ||
Records of subject ID=s | ||
Data on number of times subjects recruited or approached, dates of data collection, length of time for data collection, location, time of day, and who collected data | ||
Who, what, when, where, and how of data collection |
Select the types of measures to measure each variable |
Each variable must be measured - quantified |
Highly structured measurement takes time and testing to develop, yet gives data easier to analyze both descriptively and inferentially |
Researcher obtrusiveness - balance decreases obtrusiveness while protecting subjects' rights |
Objective measurement of phenomenon |
Better to use multiple methods to measure variables - self-reports, observations, and physiologic measures |
Need to consider ethics, cost, time, staff, and stress on pt./family &/or agency personnel |
Select and/or develop instruments | |
Identify existing instruments | |
Fit with conceptual definition of variable | |
Quality of instrument - validity & reliability | |
Resources - costs | |
Instrument use & scoring | |
Data collectors salary | |
Subject compensaton | |
Availability & familiarity | |
Researcher expertise | |
Equipment | |
Norms - comparability | |
Established norms for instrument - provide comparison group | |
Replication - use same instruments | |
Populations appropriateness | |
Reading level & writing ability | |
Cultural , ethnic origin | |
Gender biased | |
Translations for non-English speaking subjects | |
Administration | |
Expertise required of data collector for administration of instrument | |
Constraints of where, when, and how instrument administrated | |
Reputation of instrument from people who used it | |
Obtain permission to use instrument as written or to modify it |
Secure written permission to use each instrument |
Look for employer and write to author at place of employment |
Find most recent publication to identify current employer |
Request a copy of the instrument and information on scoring, procedures, validity, and reliability |
Develop instrument, pilot test researcher-developed instrument & revise it prn | |
Instrument based on theoretical framework of study | |
Pilot test on small scale & evaluate before administrationt large group | |
Determine amount of time to complete instrument | |
Areas problematic for subjects | |
Difficult to understand & reading level too high | |
Offensive terminology | |
Sequencing of questions | |
Training of data collectors | |
How well instrument discriminates among subjects - detects differences in subjects | |
Revise instrument based on pilot |
Develop data collection forms and procedures | |
Forms | |
Screening potential subjects | |
Consent & assent forms | |
Explanations to potential subjects for people referring subjects | |
Advertisements to recruit subjects | |
Records for tracking contacts with subjects | |
Mailing lists and logs for receipts | |
Procedures | |
Specific conditions for data collection | |
Specific procedures and sequencing for experiments | |
Standard information for subject's questions | |
Procedures for risks if they occur | |
List of all materials needed | |
Interview guidelines, instruments, observation directions |
Implement data collection plan | |
Select who will collect data | |
Researcher or neutral agent | |
Staff | |
Experience | |
Background similar to subject | |
Unremarkable appearance - dress, make-up, jewelry | |
Personality - pleasant, sociable, non-judgemental, non-threatening | |
Available to collect data for the entire study period | |
Training data collectors | |
Includes general principles of data collection & specifics for study | |
Data collection training manual | |
Review manual, forms, and procedures | |
Demonstrate data collection and return demonstration with videotape | |
Periodic observation of data collection to verify procedures are followed |
Self-reports | ||
Unstructured, semi-structured, and structured self-report techniques | ||
Interviews - verbal communication between research and subject; commonly used in exploratory and descriptive studies | ||
Unstructured interview - 1 subject's world view; open-ended questions with probes and prompting; qualitative; audiotaped | ||
Semi-structured interview - 1 subject; list of topics or questions for discussion with additional probes, aka topic guide; uses both open and close-ended questions; taped | ||
Structured interview - 1 subject; specific questions asked in consistent order using the same words each time; no variation from questions and no explanation of unclear questions | ||
Focus group interview - 5 to 15 subjects in a group; interviewer/moderator asks open-ended questions; efficient yet some individuals inhibited by others in the group | ||
Life history - anthropologic; chronologic changes; sequence of events | ||
Critical incident - subject describes an event [incident] from his/her viewpoint r/t research topic | ||
Diary - subject's daily log describing own experiences r/t the research topic | ||
Instruments - interview schedule with questions and space to record answers; tape recordings of face-to-face or telephone interviews | ||
Interviewer training - pilot testing; familiar with content and situations encountered with interviewing; practice maintaining unbiased verbal and nonverbal communication | ||
Researcher data gathering - good listener; good questioner; make subject relaxed and open; maintain focus on the topic; summarize and close on a positive note | ||
Evaluate data - explore new topics and experiences; time consuming and demanding | ||
Questionnaires | ||
A printed self-report form designed to elicit information that can be obtained via a written response | ||
A primary survey device to obtain information about the subjects' attributes, facts about events or situations, attitudes, beliefs, and opinions. | ||
Can be mailed or distributed directly to a large number of subjects and picked up later | ||
Degree of structure can vary from open-ended questions to closed-ended, fix-alternative questions | ||
Development of questionnaire | ||
Identify information desired and develop blueprint | ||
Search literature for questionnaires | ||
Develop questionnaire | ||
Develop instructions and cover letter | ||
Pilot test instrument & revise as indicated | ||
Establish validity and reliability | ||
Types of closed-ended questions | ||
Dichotomous items - 2 opposing choices; yes/no or true/false | ||
Multiple choice -- >2 choices from which subject selects 1 option | ||
Rank-order - subject places options in rank or order of importance based on tool directions | ||
Forced-choice - 2 polar alternative statements; similar to dichotomous, but in the form of sentences rather than single words | ||
Rating - Likert scale; semantic differential scale | ||
Visual analogue scales -100 mm line with polar adjectives; subject draws line across scale to represent subjective experience; pain, dyspnea, depression; researcher measures line at intersection to determine numerical value of pain, depression, etc. | ||
Likert scale - strongly agree to strongly disagree | ||
Semantic differential scale - happy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 sad; good bad; energetic�exhausted | ||
Psychological tests | ||
Personality inventories � mmpi, edwards personal preference | ||
Projective techniques � Rorschach inkblot test; thematic apperception test [tell a story based on a picture] | ||
Potential sources of existing instruments/scales | ||
Health & Psych instruments on line [HAPI] | ||
Frank-Stromberg | ||
Mental measurement yearbook | ||
Literature review, dissertation or thesis abstracts |
Administering self-report instruments | |
Interviews | |
Put subject at ease | |
Punctual, friendly, courteous, respectful | |
Privacy � obtain written consent | |
Check tape recorder function before each interview; bring extra batteries and tapes | |
Remain neutral | |
Use interview guide for consistency | |
Advantages of interview | |
Better response rates | |
Wider range of subjects | |
can clarify questions | |
greater depth of questions | |
decreases missing information | |
order of questions controlled | |
adds supplementary observational data | |
Questionnaires | |
Group or individuals � easy with group | |
Personal contact with subjects or mailed | |
Want response rate of at least 60% to avoid response bias | |
Cover letter stating completion and return of questionnaire indicates consent of subject | |
Can drop off and pick up in person or mail | |
Mailing with follow-up plan � questionnaire, postcard, questionnaire, postcard | |
Advantages - Cheaper, anonymity, no interviewer bias |
Response biases of subjects |
Social desirability � chooses answer most socially acceptable |
Response set � items influence the subjects response to other items |
Extreme responses � selects response on either extreme end of poles |
Acquiescence response � yeah-sayers � always agrees with statement; use both positive and negative statements to counterbalance this response |
Nay-sayers � always disagrees with statement; use both positive and negative statements to counterbalance this response |
Construction of items |
Clearly stated |
Bias decreased |
Sensitive information � respect subject |
Worded so that subjects can respond to questions |
Short sentences � ask only 1 question at a time; positive statements |
Avoid leading questions; focus on research objectives and questions |
Use closed-ended questions with socially unacceptable topics |
Do not assume subjects are well informed about topic |
Impersonal wording of items without "I" |
Mutually exclusive item choices |
Observational methods | |
Gathering data through visual, auditory, tactile and other senses | |
Phenomenon | |
Characteristics of individuals | |
Verbal & nonverbal communication behavior | |
Activities | |
Skill attainment and performance | |
Environmental characteristics | |
Steps in observation | |
Decide what to observe | |
Determine how to conduct observation to ensure every variable observed in same manner | |
Orient and provide written instructions to observers | |
Validate accuracy and consistency of observation techniques |
Observational Methods | |
Unstructured observations | |
No planning � spontaneous | |
Observer freedom | |
Risk loss of objectivity | |
Requires excellent memory & interpersonal skills | |
Structured observations | |
Define what is to be observed | |
Define how observations will be made, recorded, and coded | |
Recording structured observations | |
Categories � detailed description of behavior or characteristics of category created in advance of observation; all possibilities are included in categories; exhausted all behavioral observations and recorded | |
Checklists � listing of categories; tally frequency and duration of behavior observed; all behaviors may or may not be categorized = non exhaustive | |
Rating scales - observer rates subjects behavior on scale; can combine checklists with ratings to reflect both | |
Relationship between observer and subjects | |
Participant observations � observer & subject interact to some degree duration observation | |
Overt � subject aware of observation | |
Covert � subject not aware of observation | |
Non-participant observations � observer and subject do not interact; can be overt or covert | |
Timing of observations | |
Time sampling � making an observation for a specified length of time at pre-determined intervals [eg observe for 5 minutes every 15 minutes or observe for 5 minutes 3 randomly selected times each hour] | |
Event sampling � making an observation whenever an event occurs |
Biophysiologic Methods | |
Purposes | |
Basic physiology with relevance for nursing care | |
Ways that nursing actions or medical interventions affect patient health outcomes | |
Evaluation of specific nursing procedures or interventions testing a hypothesis | |
Improving measurement and recording of biophysiologic data collected by RN | |
Correlation of physiologic function in patient with health problems | |
Major types | |
In vivo | |
Measurements performed directly with in or on living organisms themselves | |
May use complex instrumentation system with computers | |
May be simple � thermometer, pulse oximeter, stethoscope | |
In vitro | |
Measurements performed outside the organism�s body | |
Specimens collected and tested outside body | |
Blood chemistries, microbiologic, cytologic specimens | |
Considerations for physiologic measurements | |
Will measure yield good information? Does it fit research questions/hypothesis and variables of study? | |
What other methods of measurement could be used? Invasive & noninvasive | |
Equipment and supply costs; reliability of equipment and complexity of operation | |
Training of personnel |
Other Types of Measures | |
Existing Records | |
Databases collected by other researchers | |
Medical record audits | |
Q sort | |
Subject asked to sort statements into piles according to importance to subject or most positive to least positive | |
Forced �choice arrangement distributed into piles of bell-shaped curve | |
Time-consuming and difficult for some respondents | |
Delphi or nominal technique | |
Measures the judgments of a group of experts, assess priorities or make forecasts | |
Steps | |
Identify panel of experts to answer questions | |
Develop questionnaire � mostly closed-ended | |
Questionnaires completed and returned by experts and results analyzed | |
Statistical analysis and 2nd questionnaire sent to experts and returned | |
Steps 3 & 4 repeated until data reflects the consensus of the experts |
Practical Issues Regarding Data Collection |
Gaining access to a data collection site |
Conducting the data collection - setting the stage |
After data collection - getting back for feedback |
Return to calendar/assignments