1. Provide set induction. Set induction is the initial activity of a lesson that is used to gain students' attention, inform students of the lesson objectives, and describe the lesson to students. It is intended to create a mental "set" in students so that they are in a receptive frame of mind for the lesson. Set induction is also referred to by various authors as pre-instructional set, anticipatory set, and advance organizer. There are three parts to set induction [Goeke, 2009]. First, gain students' attention for the lesson. This is done at the beginning of the lesson, focuses students' attention and interest on the learning about to take place, and is brief [a few seconds to two minutes]. It can be a focusing statement, a standard signal, or a question that elicits curiosity. Second, inform students of the learning objectives for the coming lesson. The objectives should be stated in terms of what the students will be able to do at the end of the lesson [e.g., At the end of today's lesson, you will be able to distinguish between facts and opinions from examples of political reporting]. Stating the objectives provides a focus that results in more effective, goal-directed teaching and learning. Third, describe the lesson to the students. Students need explicit details about the activities and evaluation that will be required for them to successfully achieve the objective. Describe the activities or procedures to be used in the lesson, what they will be able to do at the end of the lesson, and why it is important for them to reach these lesson objectives. This information prepares students for instruction, increases the efficiency of their learning, and can serve as a means of motivation.
2. Prepare students for the knowledge base. Effectiveness of teaching depends partly on the teacher's presentation and partly on students' prior knowledge and active thought processes during learning. Thus, teachers need to cognitively prepare students for the lesson. There are three parts to preparing students for the knowledge base [Goeke, 2009]. First, activate students' prior knowledge. What students already know about a topic is their prior knowledge. Teachers can ask students to identify and share what they already know about a given subject so they can actively link relevant background knowledge with the lesson goals. This can be done in various ways such as a K-W-L chart [What I Know; What I Want to Know; What I've Learned], a questionnaire, and charts and diagrams. Activating prior knowledge is done before the current topic is taught. It reveals students' knowledge, and facilitates comprehension and learning. It may take from 2 to 10 minutes at the start of a new unit or topic of study, but not necessarily in each lesson. Second, provide daily reviews of previously learned knowledge and skills. Before beginning a lesson, conduct a brief review of previously achieved, related learning. This facilitates the storage of information in long-term memory, helps connect old learning to new, and indicates when reteaching is necessary. This review may take 2-10 minutes. In addition, Rosenshine [1987] suggested reviewing the previous week's work every Monday and the previous month's work every fourth Monday. Third, preteach new vocabulary. Briefly preteaching new vocabulary can set students up for success by fostering fluency and prevent them from faltering over unknown words or terms during reading or instruction [Marzano & Pickering, 2005]. This part of the lesson may take 2-10 minutes. For reading in the text, preview words that appear most frequently or that students will not be able to figure out given their current skill level. For a lesson, preview vocabulary that will be used during the class session.
3. Provide instruction of new material. Teacher-directed strategies are usually employed when providing new instruction. To do so, teachers may select some of the instructional strategies reviewed later in this chapter, such as presentations, demonstrations, and questioning. Student learning is promoted when teachers reveal their thinking process concerning the content being presented. Through this cognitive modeling, teachers verbalize their own thoughts or "think aloud" so the students hear how they process the information. Modeling the thinking process is helpful for cognitive skills such as reading strategies, math problem solving, editing and revising written work, and even solving social dilemmas [Goeke, 2009]. For example, teachers may physically perform a task while verbally guiding oneself, describe each individual step of a process and its importance, make predictions, and even verbalize confusing points.
4. Provide guided practice. Guided practice helps students transfer information from working memory into long-term memory. After instruction of new material, teachers can arrange for guided practice with practice with peers, group problem solving, or teacher-directed individual guided practice. A worksheet at the beginning of an activity is not guided practice. Guided practice is most effective following a presentation or cognitive modeling of an initial concept. It also is directly linked to the learning objectives of the lesson, enables active participation, and promotes student self-direction. The teacher provides cues and support during guided practice, and this is considered a teacher-assisted approach.
5. Provide independent practice. Once students have completed enough guided practice to facilitate independent performance, it is time to check students' understanding and then reinforce individual proficiency with the new skill, concept, or strategy [Goeke, 2009]. Sometimes this check for understanding will result in the need for more guided practice. Independent practice is self-directed; students work independently with little or no teacher interaction. For younger students, independent practice may be group or individual work done in class. For middle and secondary students, independent practice is often in the form of homework. Independent practice is not always written and can be conducted through various means of expression. Independent practice activities may be skill based [e.g., worksheets, games, or drills] or application based [e.g., essays, PowerPoint presentations, oral presentation, diorama]. Skill-based independent practice promotes mastery, while application-based independent practice often promotes generalizations to meaningful, real-life settings. It is useful to use a variety of approaches.
6. Provide closure to the lesson. Closure refers to actions that are designed to bring a lesson presentation to an appropriate and satisfying conclusion [Shostak, 2011]. Closure has several purposes. First, it helps organize student learning, and promote memory and recall. Second, it helps reinforce important points from the lesson. Third, it helps students reflect on their learning. Fourth, it is an opportunity for the teacher to gauge student understanding and to determine whether there are any remaining misunderstandings.