According to research, which is most consistently a risk factor for depression?
Show
Under a Creative Commons license Open access • >60 NESDA studies on psychological risk factors were reviewed •NESDA identified transdiagnostic factors (e.g., neuroticism, low implicit self-esteem, repetitive negative thinking) •NESDA identified indications for partly overlapping disorder-specific risk factors (e.g., cognitive responsivity) •Automatic approach-avoidance of emotional facial expressions and attentional bias for negative, positive, or threat words showed no relationship with affective disorders •Results point to the relevance of both transdiagnostic and disorder-specific targets for therapeutic interventions AbstractBackgroundThe Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety (NESDA; Nbaseline=2981) is an ongoing longitudinal, multi-site, naturalistic, cohort study examining the etiology, course, and consequences of depression and anxiety. In this article we synthesize and evaluate fifteen years of NESDA research on prominent psychological risk factors for the onset, persistence, recurrence, and comorbidity of affective disorders. MethodsA narrative review of 62 NESDA articles examining the specificity and predictive value of neuroticism, behavioral inhibition, repetitive negative thinking, experiential avoidance, cognitive reactivity, locus of control, (implicit) self-esteem, (implicit) disorder-specific self-associations, and attentional bias for the course of affective disorders. ResultsAll self-reported risk factors showed cross-sectional relationships with singular and comorbid affective disorders, and prospective relationships with the development and chronicity of depression and anxiety disorders. High neuroticism, low self-esteem, and negative repetitive thinking showed most prominent transdiagnostic relationships, whereas cognitive reactivity showed most pronounced depression-specific associations. Implicit self-esteem showed predictive validity for the persistence and recurrence of anxiety and depression over and above self-reported risk factors. Automatic approach-avoidance behavior and attentional bias for negative, positive, or threat words showed no relationship with affective disorders. ConclusionNESDA identified both (a) transdiagnostic factors (e.g., neuroticism, low implicit self-esteem, repetitive negative thinking) that may help explain the comorbidity between affective disorders and overlap in symptoms, and (b) indications for disorder-specific risk factors (e.g., cognitive responsivity) which support the relevance of distinct disorder categories and disorder-specific mechanisms. Thus, the results point to the relevance of both transdiagnostic and disorder-specific targets for therapeutic interventions. KeywordsDepression Anxiety Psychological vulnerability Psychological risk factors Review Affective disorders Cited by (0)© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. A risk factor is something that increases your chances of developing a disease or condition. For example, smoking is a risk factor for heart disease, cancer, and stroke. When it comes to depression, several factors may play a role, including a variety of genetic, psychological, and environmental contributors. Several factors can make depression more likely. These may include:
Do risk factors differ for different types of depression?There are various types of depression, including:
Do all of these types of depression have different causes? The short answer is no. Most cases of depression are the result of various risk factors coming together, rather than just a single cause. Plus, certain factors may weigh more heavily on different people. For example, stress may play more of a role in one person, while poor diet may significantly affect others. In other words, depression is a complex disorder with multiple factors weighing in. Overall, a large majority of the risk factors discussed below can contribute to most types of depression to varying degrees. Family history and geneticsGenetics are known to play a significant role in depression. If you have a close family member, such as a parent or sibling with depression, you have a 2 to 3 times greater risk of developing depression than a person without a family history. One way researchers know this is through twin studies. Identical twins share 100% of their genes, while fraternal twins share 50% of their genes. So if genes play a role in depression, we would expect that if one twin has depression, an identical twin would have a much higher chance of having it than a non-identical twin. Through studies like this, researchers have found that heritability for major depression may be as high as 40–50%. Chronic stressWhile a little stress can be a good thing — as it can keep us motivated — chronic stress can wear down the body’s healthy stress response, leading to depression in some people. Long-term stress results in overactivity of the brain’s HPA axis, which refers to the interaction between the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal glands. The HPA axis plays a vital role in how our body handles stress. When the HPA is overactive, it results in the release of too much epinephrine (an adrenal hormone involved in the fight, flight, or freeze response) and cortisol, the body’s “stress hormone,” which can cause all kinds of health problems, including depression. Research shows that dysfunction of the HPA axis is seen in about 70% of people with depression. History of traumaIndividuals with a history of trauma and abuse, particularly during early childhood, may be at greater risk of developing depression. Those who’ve experienced childhood trauma also seem to be more likely to experience treatment-resistant depression in adulthood. One study found that adults with MDD had experienced significantly more childhood trauma than adults without depression. Specifically, 62.5% of the participants with MDD reported more than 2 traumatic events, compared with 28.4% of participants in the healthy control group. Those with MDD had much higher rates of sexual, physical, and emotional abuse than those without MDD. They also had experienced much more neglect, bullying, or rejection, and had witnessed more domestic violence. The study also showed that people with a history of childhood trauma before the age of 7 — including sexual, physical, or emotional abuse — didn’t respond as well to antidepressant treatments. Racial trauma may also put a person at a higher chance of depression — this may affect adults and adolescents alike. GenderBeing female may increase your chances of developing depression. In fact, major depression is the leading cause of disease burden in women around the world. Women are twice as likely as men to experience major depression. They also have higher rates of:
Around 1 in 8 women will experience depression in their lifetime. There are a few theories as to why this is the case. Women report experiencing more stress and higher rates of trauma (both risk factors for depression) than men. Female hormones, such as estrogen, may also play a role. Gender differences in depression rates emerge in puberty, with girls reporting more depression starting in their preteen years. Women are also vulnerable to depression after childbirth and during menstruation, when hormones are more prone to fluctuation. Besides women, research also shows that people who are transgender or nonbinary are more likely to experience depression — which may be due to various factors, including abuse, discrimination, and gender minority stress. Poor nutritionEating a nutritious diet is important for brain function. When we don’t get the necessary nutrients our body needs, we’re at greater risk of developing physical and mental health problems. Research suggests that eating a lot of processed foods may increase someone’s risk of depression. Similarly, consuming too many simple carbs is linked to symptoms of depression, especially in women. Studies have also found that people with depression may be more likely to have low blood levels of:
So eating foods rich in these nutrients or taking a supplement may help ease depression symptoms. One group of nutrients considered to be a protective factor against depression is omega-3 fatty acids, found for example in fatty fish, algae, walnuts, and chia seeds. Evidence suggests that people who usually consume a diet rich in omega-3-fatty acids are at lower risk of developing:
Other research suggests that diets rich in antioxidants may help reduce symptoms of depression. Plus, evidence indicates that magnesium may be helpful for people with mild to moderate depression. Unresolved grief or lossGrieving the loss of a loved one is a natural part of the human experience, and recovering from such a loss takes time. In a natural bereavement process, the intense feelings of emptiness and sadness typically start to decrease over time. But in some cases, due to a variety of factors, healing becomes more difficult. This unresolved or “complicated” grief can lead to depression in some people. About 1 in 10 bereaved adults experience prolonged grief. For some, this can lead to grief-related major depression. Personality traitsCan your personality make you more susceptible to depression? Some research suggests it can. One study found that the following personality traits are linked to depressive symptoms:
Another analysis also found that people with depression scored higher in neuroticism but lower in extraversion and conscientiousness. This study was based on the “Big Five” personality traits. What the study results mean is that a person with depression may be more likely to:
Medication and substance useIn most cases, people use substances or alcohol in an effort to feel better. But sometimes the substance can have the opposite effect, making the person feel worse. When substances — including prescribed medications — lead to depressive symptoms, it’s known as substance-induced depression. This may occur when you actively use a substance, or when you experience intoxication or withdrawal. Studies suggest that nearly half of these depressive episodes occur through heavy alcohol use. Other substances commonly associated with substance-induced depression include cocaine and opioids, particularly heroin. Medications more commonly associated with substance-induced depression include:
Researchers suggest that these substances alter neurotransmitter communication in important brain circuits. Some symptoms of depression include:
If you experience any of these symptoms for a period of several weeks, it might be time to seek help. Consider reaching out to a healthcare professional, therapist, or a depression hotline. Even if you have a few risk factors, it doesn’t mean you will definitely develop depression. But it’s always a good idea to do what you can to protect yourself when it’s in your power to do so. While we have no control over some risk factors, like genetics or childhood trauma, we can control other contributors such as diet and alcohol use. It also helps to develop stress-coping skills — such as meditation and exercise — to help reduce the chance of depression through chronic stress. If you do develop depression, just know that it’s highly treatable and there are many supportive services available to help. What is the main factor that causes depression?There's no single cause of depression. It can occur for a variety of reasons and it has many different triggers. For some people, an upsetting or stressful life event, such as bereavement, divorce, illness, redundancy and job or money worries, can be the cause. Different causes can often combine to trigger depression.
What are 3 risk factors for depression?Risk Factors. Genetics: A history of depression in your family may make it more likely for you to get it. ... . Death or loss: Sadness and grief are normal reactions. ... . Conflict: Personal turmoil or disputes with family or friends may lead to depression.. Abuse: Past physical, sexual, or emotional abuse can bring it on, as well.. |